Assessing Materiality and Risk Simulation Essay

Certain accounts, such as cash, long term debt and short term borrowings, and intangibles, are audited 100% because they are very important to the audit process and/or industry, or simply because they are easily verifiable. Unlike auditing inventory, accounts receivable, accounts payable, capital assets; which can be time-consuming to audit fully, auditing 100% of cash or long term debt is fairly easy (e.g. by obtaining cash and debt confirmations from banks). â€Å"According to the financial accounting standards board, materiality symbolized the importance of something forgotten or a misstatement of an entry in an economic report that, the encircling assets make it believable that the awareness of a sensible individual depending on the facts would have been replaced, altered by the involvement or repair of an article† (Boynton, Johnson). All in all when an auditor create an agreeable materiality level that discover both the quantity (amount) and the (quality) nature of misstatements needed to be examined. The auditor will also with given time will assign materiality to everything that is sampled, this way no report is omitted or avoids a looked. Audit risk is the possibility of a material misstatement, remaining undetected even after the audit is completed and as a result the audit statement fails to provide true and fair view of the company financial statements. Of the three components of audit risk, only detection risk is a result of failure on the part of the auditor to notice a misstatement. As noted above, audit risk is a function of inherent risk, control risk and detection risk. Inherent risk and control risk make up the risk of material misstatement. RMM = IR x CR AR = RMM x DR If we assume that the auditor does not have impact on control risk (control risk is usually assessed as High, unless test of controls is performed) and no impact on inherent risk, the auditor needs to manipulate detection risk to reduce the level of audit risk. The higher the risk of material misstatement, the more thorough substantive procedures the auditor needs to apply to support the account balance.

How Economics Have Changed My Life Essay

They say that if you look at it things closely, you will see the essence of economics going about its daily routine. Indeed, from the man buying his morning coffee to the woman calling for a cab, the economic system is all around us. Not many people notice it (or are just apathetic about it). But surely, it’s everywhere. Day and night – it never stops. The moment the sun sets in one part of the world, money starts circulating on the opposite side. The buying and selling of goods begins. Services now continue with their proceedings and processes. And infrastructure construction resumes. Truly, depending on how one views his or her own surroundings, one will be able to see the active nature of economics. Economics, in the simplest sense, refers to the study of the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services. As a field of study, economics aims to comprehend the daily processes of the subjects mentioned. As such, the study of economics helps people understand the never ending activity of economics within their daily lives. Apart from the study of the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services, probably one of the most important aspects of economics is the study or analysis of scarcity. Scarcity, in the economic sense, means the availability (or unavailability) of resources (insufficient) that are used to satisfy the needs and wants of the populace. As what the late Lionel Robbins – a British Economist of the late 20th century – had claimed, â€Å"Economics is the Science which studies human behavior as a relationship between ends and scarce means which have alternative uses. Using Robbins’ definition, it can be deduced that the study of economics is the study of man’s choices over how to fulfill his needs and wants through the regulation and use of scarce natural resources. In its activities, economics attempts to make full use of scarce resources efficiently. This nature of efficiency helps the adherents of economics – and in the general sense, the entire world – to understand the world around them. Simply said, it helps the person who is familiar with economics understand how or why a certain product’s price goes up or down. Likewise, a person who understands the study of economics will be able to determine the economic health of his or her own country; thus, paving the way to understanding and interpreting some possible implications to the politics of the nation, its society and its environment. Truly, people who understand economics are people who understand how the world works (at least in terms of human resources and human activity). Let us take, for example, the Stock Market. How does a stock price go up? Why does it go down? How do people profit from it? Oppositely, how do people lose money from it? Economically speaking, the Stock Market is or can be used as a determinant for the country’s economic growth and development. As such, people who understand the Stock Market will be able to understand the aggregate economy of the country. However, before everything else, one must first understand the study of economics before one can understand the working’s of the Stock Market. This statement only highlights the importance of economics in our daily lives. Personally, my study of economics has helped me advance my life in many ways. For starters, it has helped me understand the law of supply and demand. The law of supply and demand is undoubtedly one of the strongest foundations of every economy in every country in the world. As the law dictates, the higher the demand, the higher the supply and consequently, the higher the supply, the lower the demand becomes. Basically, the law follows a simple cycle of product prices fluctuating in response to the populace needs and wants. Understanding this law benefits me in more ways than one. For instance, I am able to anticipate whether a certain product’s price will go up or down. By understanding that higher demand tempts sellers to increase their prices, I am able to expect such fluctuations and then make my monthly budgeting more versatile and frugal. Likewise, I am able to anticipate whether a certain product’s price might go down due to excessive supply and low demand. In that way, I am able to make certain changes in my spending habits by carefully predicting the right time prices will go down; thus, maximizing my available purchasing power. Indeed, knowledge about the Law of Supply and Demand can make an individual more frugal and less prodigal – simply said, it makes a person more â€Å"economic†. This knowledge may seem to be irrelevant for some people. But personally, I find this knowledge an advantage against others. Being able to hold a sort of reading reference for possible future circumstances pertaining to product prices can truly serve as an edge over other consumers. And this advantage does not stop there. The more a person studies the field of economics, the more he or she will understand the workings of the economy and ultimately use it to his or her own advantage. Let us take, for example, the Banking System. In the past, I found the system of banks and their proceedings to be an intricate process that is too much for the average person to understand and take advantage of. After understanding the basic foundations of economics, however, I was able to somehow comprehend the normal workings of the Bank. By being able to do so, I am able to take advantage of the Bank’s perceived benefits without ironically putting myself within the economic damages of the Bank’s perceived detriments. Furthermore, I am able to understand the workings of borrowing and paying loans – both in its deadly and beneficial aspects. Now armed with this knowledge, I am now able to perform financially competent within the economy of the country. I am able establish businesses with the help of the bank; of which, technically, results to the creation of jobs, the stimulation of buying and selling of products and materials and the circulation of money – all done accordingly in contribution to the aggregate economy of the nation. The study of economics, as some historians and economists suggest, has been around since the time humans first initiated commercial relationships with different societies within their own kind. Indeed, humankind started out with some simple trade rules and processes. The most famous of all (and probably the most ancient) was the trade process known as barter. Barter is simply an act of exchanging one’s goods in trade for another’s. Many traders and/or merchants from different societies have used this method for centuries – trading valuable goods in exchange for the exotic, the priceless for the unique and the old for the new. It is through this type of trading process that humankind first developed a sense of importance for this activity of buying and selling of goods. For one thing, security and trust was a problem. A lot of traders mostly lie about the quality (and sometimes the quantity) of their goods. Some even resort to petty thievery and conning activities – mostly after the trade has been conducted. Furthermore, people faced problems with regards to the implications of their activities. Imagine a situation in the past where we assume that a Chinese trader decides to bring Jadestones to India. The traders of India are delighted. They then exchange their goods. The next week, the Indian traders demand to the Chinese traders to bring more Jadestones for the people of India somehow found it both exquisite and valuable. Since trade was done merely through barter, Jadestones poured into the Ancient Indian Society in exchange for more important goods such as rice, wood and other agricultural or mineral products of lesser value. The end result would be a disaster: Jadestones overwhelming the country without any way of determining its value to other foreign traders whom they wish to sell it to or who wish to acquire it. If the study of economics was prevalent back then, this situation could have never happened. Speaking of commerce, history suggests that humankind eventually evolved from barter to the use of currencies through the development of ancient coins. Initially, currencies where first developed through the creation of small metal coins that were used to represent stored values of cargo and commodities. Eventually, these coins began storing value themselves. Coins made from many different kinds of materials – ranging from plain metal to solid gold – started becoming valuable. Thus, came a different era where trading no longer requires the loss of one’s goods in exchange for another. Coins of different kinds were now used to determine the value of the goods that were being taken – or in the economic sense, sold. Purchases and exchanges were now done in accordance with the value of the coins being exchanged. For instance, gold coins were used for large purchases and the backing of State activities. Silver coins represented large transactions between traders and merchants while copper coins represented common transactions between citizens. Eventually, the era of coins was put to an end when the introduction of paper money and credit money began in as early as the 7th century in Ancient China. Being that major traders were now trading in huge volumes whilst bringing and using large amounts of coins during their trips in order to conduct their proceedings and processes, the weight of their carriages became intolerable. Thus, ancient traders and merchants resorted to putting their name and the amount of coins they had on paper – indicating to their counterparts and colleagues that that were the amount of coins they had (which, unfortunately, they cannot bring). It was less burdening for merchants and traders alike. In fact, the Ancient Chinese Emperors found it so convenient that they began establishing the act (the putting the amount on paper) as a business norm. Paper money was then regulated among the populace and among traders and merchants overseas. The rest, as they say, was history. Governments, Empires and Monarchies alike began issuing a unit of currency for their paper money and no sooner, the era of currency trading began and at present, major international organizations such as the International Monetary Fund and others now regulates the entire foreign exchange system of the world. All of these were made possible through the study of economics. And for that, I can safely say that economics have already made an impact on my life even before I was born. I can only imagine what life would be if currencies were not yet introduced in the world of business. Purchasing products would probably be a hardy task. Obtaining resources from other countries would also require intricate processes and mechanics. Ultimately, governments would probably find it hard to conduct businesses, regulate the economy and build infrastructures. The study of economics has helped me understand all these concepts and contexts (even though only in a minimal level). Indeed, though the existence of these ancient currencies may have been one of the earliest foundations of the development of the study of economics, it cannot be denied that it was the study of economics which made the nature of these currencies become more comprehensible. The creation of paper money and credit money has benefited humankind in many ways. First of all, people are now able to carry with huge amounts of money with as little weight as possible. Second, the value and goods can now be easily determined (coupled with the law of supply and demand). Finally, business transactions and salary payment can now be easily conducted. All these benefits have undoubtedly manifested themselves generally from the study of economics. The study of economics have helped me changed my life in more ways than one. Apart from making my life a lot easier (as compared to the absence of the knowledge of it), it has also made me change my view of a lot of things. Studying economics has made me understand how the country’s economy runs. It helped me understand how banks and other financial institutions work. Furthermore, it has also helped me understand the daily workings of everyday life – from the buying and selling of goods to the acquiring and paying of debts. As such, I am able to see things in a more â€Å"economic† view. And indeed, it has made my life more fascinating, if not complex. Learning economics is not an easy task. Economics, in general, covers a lot of topics and sub-topics ranging from microeconomics to macroeconomics. As such, it is important for its recipients to devote as much time as possible in order to – not necessarily master but – be adequate about it. For one thing, economics is not a walk in the park. With all its benefits and privileges comes a different set of detriments and sacrifices. I am not implying, though, that those who do master all the concepts and contexts of economics will be the ones who’ll practically lead better lives than others – that is a different issue. I am implying, however, that those who do master economics in all its wonders and intricacies will lead very different lives as compared to those who are completely ignorant or apathetic to the knowledge. As said before, economics is all around us. It never sleeps. Its processes and activities are present in every society, in every community. It is a sort of quasi-invisible force that, if viewed consciously, would guide our everyday lives. As such, it is important to note that having the knowledge of economics is better than having none.

ASIA PACIFIC BUSINESS Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

ASIA PACIFIC BUSINESS - Essay Example The business and economic strategy based on chaebols took an export and outward-oriented model to boost the country’s economy through business associations. Today, the chaebols have become global powerhouses that have made the economy of South Korea become one of the greatest in the world. Chaebols are multinational conglomerates that are controlled by certain families in South Korea. The chaebols have received immense government support in South Korea resulting in fast economic growth and an increase in the country’s GDP of about 10 percent between the years 1962-1994 (Powers, 2010). The Korean chaebols have resulted in enormous economic growth of South Korea from early 1960s to early 2000. The economic growth in South Korea was due to the effects from industrial and other services sector. The industrial sector increased its contribution to the country’s economy from 20 to 37 percent while the services sector increased from 43 to 60 percent from 1965 to 2008. To boost economic growth, the South Korean government fully supported the chaebols. The government nationalized all commercial banks so that the banks could channel all their finances to the chaebols. The chaebols had a great share of the total credit produced by financial institutions. As a result, the chaebols had to fulfill most of their export obligations thus, increasing economic growth in South Korea. The government also developed an export strategy to promote export of goods and at the same time substitute imports that favored the conglomerates. The government also restricted direct foreign investments and used this as a chance to get new technologies and business expertise. As a step to support fast economic growth, the government allowed the chaebols to access foreign loans. In contrast, the government curbed any outflows in domestic capital. Government support of the chaebols was of a great magnitude to the extent that the chaebols expanded unprecedentedly in size. The cha ebols had

Wal-Marts Sustainability Strategy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Wal-Marts Sustainability Strategy - Essay Example This paper illustrates that Wal-Mart is one of the most successful groups with operations in 27 countries, has more than 10,000 stores with different departments and employs over 2 million people. The aim was to improve the lives of the people by saving their money while making the profit through reduced expenses and improved management. They operate as supercenters, food and drug store, restaurants, general merchandise stores, warehouse clubs, small markets, discount stores human and cash and carry stores. Its strategic management has been based on five principles: resource development, reduced expenses, online shopping services, satisfied customers and social and environmental responsibility.These have led to the rapid growth in revenue, customer base, and workforce. Like any other large international companies, there need to develop a proper management strategy to ensure the business fulfills its mission. The company employs over two million employees across the world and has been accused of violating their rights. According to Marshall, their employees went on strike in Los Angeles after several months of trying to reach out to the company’s executives with success. Prior to this strike, there was also the demonstration in other regions, with the employees complaining of low wages, health risk, and poor treatment while at work. There has been the case of a firing of workers that are actively involved in their trade union OUR Wal-Mart. OUR Wal-Mart has filed several cases on unfair treatment of the workers Such as termination, warnings or reduced working hours. Most complaints seem to be a strategy by the executives to reduce the cost of labor and eventually reducing the operational cost. The reduction in expenses is supposed to increase sales and revenue. Staff reduction can hinder proper management of day to day activities in the stores as well as in factories. Each outlet has different management and this has worsened the situation, some stores lac k proper safety facilities, do not give employment contract to their employees, and poor sanitation.

Quiz 3 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Quiz 3 - Essay Example ent: conduct and demeanor of the minor at the time of the incident involved: education and training for instance whether the minor is a high school graduate: life experiences such as whether the minor is emancipated, married, pregnant, a parent, or living apart from the parents (Donna, 2011). If health care professionals determine that a minor is mature, then the minor’s choices take precedence over the parent’s choice (Dickens & Cook, 2005). However the state laws can change that if the minor’s choices go against the state’s interest. States sometimes get involved in minors’ medical care to protect the states’ interest in preserving human life, preventing suicides, protecting third parties, and maintaining the ethical integrity of medical profession, the strongest of which is preservation of human life. Medical care providers should obtain and document informed consent from all appropriate, authorized legal representatives, including the parents and the mature minor, and any authorized person because of the legitimate public concerns that underlie the evolving controversy over the right to refuse medical care (Vukadinowich, 2004). To be valid, any consent must be given by a person with the requisite legal capacity. Thus, a physician who proceeds with a treatment in conformity with a mature minor’s request and a signed agreement still might be proceeding without legal consent because the minor might lack capacity due to age. On the other hand, if a physician proceeds at the parent’s request in conformity with the best interest of a mature minor, the physician might be proceeding without consent because the minor may have legal capacity due to maturity. Piaget greatly underestimated children’s capabilities; he ignored cultural influences; several individuals never develop the capability for formal reasoning, even as grown-ups; at times children concurrently develop abilities that are characteristic of more than one stage, and this makes the

Walden by Henry Thoreau Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Walden by Henry Thoreau - Essay Example The author harps on the self sufficiency while penning down the book which is clearly evident from the lines: â€Å"There is no odor so bad as that which arises from the goodness tainted. It is human, it is divine, carrion. If I knew for a certainty that a man was coming to my house with the conscious design of doing me good, I should run to my life. No- in this case I would rather suffer evil the natural way.† (Thoreau) The paper attempts to analyze Walden with a critical perspective. Once the reader starts reading the book he/she is acquainted with the knowledge of what made the author reside in a cabin made by him by the Walden Pond. The author feels that most of the people in this world spend their time in â€Å"mere ignorance and mistakes† (Thoreau) where the quest is only for acquiring luxuries. The author feels that the labor is wasted â€Å"from excessive toil† where man fails to acquire the â€Å"true integrity†. (Thoreau) But the author makes it clear that he was not a hermit who wanted to spend the time in the nature zealot but he was guided by a set of philosophical set of ideas. The reading of the book reveals the effort of the author in self discovery which was an experiment to learn how to live life. The author approach of life is that to live free and uncommitted as he is of the opinion that â€Å"It makes but little difference whether you are committed to a farm or the county jail†. (Thoreau) He makes a difference between the mortal and the immortal by saying â€Å"In accumulating property for ourselves or our posterity, in founding a family or a state, or acquiring fame even, we are mortal; but in dealing with truth we are immortal† (Thoreau). The reading of the book reveals the author’s education from the nature when he says â€Å"I had more than ever come within the influence of those books which circulate round the world, whose sentences were first written on bark, and are now merely copied from time to time on to the linen paper† (Thoreau) The book reveals the transcendentalism of the author where he emphasizes on the beauty of the nature by describing the sides of the path being adorned by â€Å"the sand cherry with its delicate flowers†. (Thoreau) The sounds of the nature like the bird chirping make the author feel the harmony and pleasure. The author perfectly enjoys his â€Å"strange liberty† (Thoreau) The description of the nature by the author reveals the perfect harmony and joy the author is experiencing. One may be of the opinion that the books deals with the author’s opinion against the modern life settlement and the luxurious life one spends, â€Å"I see young men, my townsmen, whose misfortune it is to have inherited farms, houses, barns, cattle and farming tool† or the authors explanation of the beauty of nature while he explains the â€Å"strange liberty of nature† (Thoreau), but reading of the complete book would reveal that the book is all about individuality, about leading the life one wants without following the conventions, â€Å"The life in us is like the water in the river†. (Thoreau) The book needs a thorough reading and understanding of the reader and reassessing is required as the narrative style is difficult. The initial reading of the book reveals the sarcasm and the wit of the author where he talks about the â€Å"frivolous† (Thoreau) nature of the human kind. The book focuses on

Film Pitch Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Film Pitch - Essay Example Australian Aborigines migrated from somewhere in Asia at least 30,000 years ago. Though they comprise 500–600 distinct groups, aboriginal people possess some unifying links. Among these are strong spiritual beliefs that tie them to the land such as a tribal culture of storytelling and art and like other indigenous populations, a difficult colonial history. (infoplease.com ). Aboriginal people are the Indigenous people of Australia. â€Å"Aboriginal people, their traditional cultures and lands lie on the mainland and most of the islands, including Tasmania, Fraser Island, Palm Island, Mornington Island, Groote Eylandt, Bathrust and Melville Islands.† (ikkeweer.net ) The story will be set on the indigenous land with a tribe that is currently functioning with the old belief systems. The story will follow a family in this tribe and the different functions which they have to move through to stay on the land. The story will show how the family survives, what the traditions an d rituals are and how the indigenous family has preserved the culture through time. It will then switch to showing the modern world and how the tribes either fit into or are marginalized out of mainstream society. The film will provide insights into the indigenous tribes functioning in mainstream society, combined with interviews of the majority population and what is known about the Aborigines. The setting will begin in Queensland with the focus on the Guugu Yimithirr. The focus on this tribe shows the movement into colonization because they were taken over in 1770 by James Cook and were expected to integrate into society. The ending will show the state of this group now and how the indigenous peoples have remained in the outback and outside of society. Cast and Key Crew: Since this is a documentary, the cast and key crew will be determined while filming. An anonymous family will be chosen for the shooting, specifically to show the highlights of their lives and what occurs in terms of culture, ritual and daily living. An anonymous group of people in Queensland will also be found to show the ideals of the indigenous. A narrator will be used for the historical details of the indigenous before James Cook and to show the realistic ideal of what happened to this specific tribe in 1770. Rationale for Making: The culture of Australia is one which is rich and diverse in many who have migrated to Australia, as well as others who have been on the land for centuries. This has led to marginalized groups that are often overlooked with the melting pot of Australia. Little attention is given not only to the minority groups and the way in which they function within society. There is also little to no examination of the history of Australia and the roots where it has come from. This particular documentary will display the changes which have occurred in society and will allow every Australian to reexamine their heritage, culture and nationalistic identity. More important, ther e will be a distinguished understanding of what happened in colonialization and to the present time to change the indigenous tribes of the land from a majority population and into one that is known to stay in the outback and live as a minority and marginalized group (May, 1994). Not only is this particular aspect important to examine for Australians, but it will also tap into a voice that is now rising in Australia. This will help to support what many are thinking within society, specifically which is

Analysis of Learning Weekly at University of Phoenix Essay - 1

Analysis of Learning Weekly at University of Phoenix - Essay Example Class discussions were very helpful and interesting. Communication is an important aspect of any academic work. Once a piece of academic work is complete, it should be communicated to relevant persons through means such as presentation. I learned how to prepare for a presentation and how the same can be presented to various stakeholders using platforms such as cell phones, text messaging, and e-mail. Understanding the concept of the presentation will enable me to present my research as well as academic work through online or digital platforms supported by our mode of online learning. As a professional, I will be in a good position to do research and present my findings using available web communication platforms. Communication in the digital age was very interesting to learn. Cell phones, text messaging, and e-mail has certainly changed the role of formal writing since they are increasingly becoming preferred methods of communication. However, formal writing ensures that communication standards are maintained so that it remains relevant to all the stakeholders  involved.

Emergency Mitigation Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Emergency Mitigation - Coursework Example The plans should have a wide scope of coverage; they should be applicable to as many situations as possible. A good plan should identify possible sources of emergencies and their associated counteractive measures (Martin, 2006). Emergency mitigation plans should be sensitive to the available resources. It should recognize the financial capability of a particular region. A good mitigation should be able to respond rapidly. An emergency planner should carry out a survey of Tampa region to assess the required measures in an emergency mitigation plan. There are successful mitigation plans in other parts of the world that a planner can use (Martin, 2006). Some of the successful plans have been executed during emergency occurrences. Emergency mitigation plans should be relevant; a plan for another city would not necessarily be effective in Tampa. A good plan should take care of daily activities that take place in

Argument essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 6

Argument - Essay Example Living today is much easier and for sure this will also be different another fifty years to come and life will be better than today. The political world has evolved and the rights of the people today are more protected. Fifty years ago, the citizens did not have enough avenues where they could air their grievances. Today there are civil rights groups that help to protect the lives of the citizens. With the different political parties, there is the party that runs the government and there is the opposition side. The purpose of the opposition is to ensure that the government of the day does not misuse the office it holds. With the civil rights groups and opposition parties, leaders on both sides are more accountable. The courts that were meant to prosecute the leaders for abuse of office rarely did their work. The mighty had power whereas the common man was left watching their tax money go to waste. Today the case is different. Today we have national, regional and international courts like the International Criminal Court to ensure that those in power do not abuse this power. Another fascinating thing is that the voters are more enlightened today than they were fifty years. It is not only the parliament that has a say on the political world. Through referendums, the people can air their views on the direction they would want their nation to follow. Today, the gap between the rich and the poor is not as wide as it was fifty years ago. When the gap between the poor and the rich narrows, then we can say that the economy of the country is doing well. Martin Luther King fifty one years ago gave a moving speech where he saw the lives of all Americans improve to a great extent. Today, the economy of America is doing well, and the country is a global icon in terms of its finances. The country can now give aid to other nations in the world. The household income has improved compared to what many homes used to make on average. Fifty

Adventures of Huckleberry Finn Essay Example for Free

Adventures of Huckleberry Finn Essay Characters: Huckleberry Finn The protagonist and narrator of the novel. Huck is the thirteen-year-old son of the local drunk of St. Petersburg, Missouri, a town on the Mississippi River. Tom Sawyer Huck’s friend. Tom serves as a foil to Huck: imaginative, dominating, and given to wild plans taken from the plots of adventure novels, Tom is everything that Huck is not. Widow Douglas and Miss Watson Two wealthy sisters who live together in a large house in St. Petersburg and who adopt Huck. Jim One of Miss Watson’s household slaves. Jim is superstitious and occasionally sentimental, but he is also intelligent, practical, and ultimately more of an adult than anyone else in the novel. Pap Huck’s father, the town drunk and ne’er-do-well. Pap is a wreck when he appears at the beginning of the novel, with disgusting, ghostlike white skin and tattered clothes. Plot: The story is all about a young boy named Huck, and a slave named Jim. Huck had faked his death and left town and then met the runaway slave,Jim.The two of them travel on a raft up the Mississippi river and meet and have to overcome many obstacles which bring them closer together as they both learn lessons all the way through to the end. Conflict: When Huck’s dealings with Jim, as Huck must decide whether to turn Jim in, as society demands, or to protect and help his friend instead. Climax: When Huck considers but then decides against writing Miss Watson to tell her the Phelps family is holding Jim, following his conscience rather than the prevailing morality of the day. Instead, Tom and Huck try to free  Jim, and Tom is shot in the leg during the attempt. Denouement: When Aunt Polly arrives at the Phelps farm and correctly identifies Tom and Huck, Tom reveals that Miss Watson died two months earlier and freed Jim in her will.  Ending: When Jim is free, Toms leg is healed, Huck still has his $6,000, and Aunt Sally has offered to adopt him. Lesson learned: I learned that I learned that we should never judge people by their appearances.

How small firms differ from large businesses

How small firms differ from large businesses Penrose (1959) stated that small and large firms are as fundamentally different from each other as a caterpillar is from a butterfly; they identify those characteristics of the small firm, other than size, which distinguish it from the larger enterprise. Thus, while creating, establishing and running a small business, these characteristics will influence the small business owners approaches and management style compared to large ones. Wynarczyk et al (1993) argue that there are three central respects in which small firms are different to large firms: Uncertainty The first key area of differences is uncertainty. With regard to uncertainty, three dimensions have been identified: The first uncertainty is the lack of market power, Thus, when creating and establishing a small business, the owner should have a clearer approach of the lack of market power as an external uncertainty. This associates small businesses as the price-taker as they have no power to set prices, as the threats of new entrants is high. However, it can be argued that it depends on what type of small businesses does the owner want to create, establish and run. For instance, focusing on niche markets with good customer-engagement approach, such as a small holiday agency, will make small businesses to have an influence in setting their prices. Hence, small businesses have to seek to compete in other ways such as service, quality, and timeliness. In contrast, large businesses are the price-maker due to high market power; this has to be used carefully to avoid attracting the attention of competition authorities. So, market prices are strongly influenced by large businesses that, through scale economies, should be able to set low prices. The marketing approach would be to use an integrated communication mix such as, mass advertising and PR, as their financial resources allow them to do so. Thus, the competitive focus of small and large businesses is likely to differ sharply. The second source of uncertainty for small firms is their limited customer and product base. A classic example is where small firms simply act as subcontractors to larger firms. Such firms are open to subcontractor vulnerability (Lyons and Bailey, 1993), which is created not only by dependence on dominant customers, but also upon the extent to which output is specialised to particular customers. The smaller firm clearly perceives to be more vulnerable than the larger firm and acts accordingly (Lyons and Bailey, 1993). The third uncertainty relates to the much greater diversity of objectives of the owners of small firms, compared with large firms. Many small business owners seek only to obtain a minimum level of income rather than maximising sales or profits (Storey 1994). Small business owners do not have to concern themselves with reporting their actions to external shareholders and so performance monitoring effectively do not exist. For a small firm, the relationship between the business and the owner is very much closer than it is between the shareholder and the large firm, and so the motivation of the owner of the small firm is a key influence upon the small firm performance (Storey, 1994). Large firm emphasises the importance of control. The central issue is how the owners of the business ensure that the managers of the business act in their interest, and how senior managers exert control over more junior managers. This form of internal conflict is largely absent in small firms (Storey, 1994) where ownership and control are located in the hands of a few people or even a single individual, thus, while running a small business, the owner will adopt a more dynamic and organic management style. In contrast, large businesses are more likely to suffer from internal uncertainty, defined by Curran and Blackburn (2001), as an inability to deliver a product or service consistently throughout the organisation. Much managerial time in large businesses is devoted to address this issue with therefore formality and procedures implemented. Hence, the large businesses tend to have a bureaucratic management style with formal control over performance. Innovation A second key area of difference between small and large firms is their approach to innovation. The role small firms play in innovation relates to their niche role where: it is the ability of the small firm to provide something marginally different, in terms of product or service, which distinguishes it from the more standardised product or service provided by the larger firm (Storey, 1994: 11-12). Small firms are more likely to introduce fundamentally new innovations than larger firms, a feature often attributed to small firms having less commitment to existing practices and products (Pavitt et al. 1987). However, Schumpeter (1934) has provided empirical evidence that large businesses use static measures, and are more innovative than smaller businesses. This is because most small businesses do not set out to be innovative: at best, their key innovation is just to enter a given market. Furthermore, Van Praag and Versloot (2007) stated that small businesses are likely to commercialise innovations but less likely to adopt innovations. However, large businesses innovation capitalise on heavy expenditure on formal research and development. While most small businesses do not innovate, and many fewer undertake formal research and development, those that do are able to bring ideas to the marketplace quickly if they are able to access suitable funding. Evolution The third area of difference between small and large firms is the greater likelihood of evolution and change in the smaller firm (Storey, 1994). Small firms that become larger undergo a number of stage changes which influence the approaches and style of management as well as the structure of the organisation (Scott and Bruce, 1987) than is the case for larger firms (Storey, 1994). Thus, creating, establishing and running a new small business has different approaches, management styles and skills learn through experience, at different stages of the small business development. Churchill and Lewis (1983) summarised the Five Stages of Small Business Growth stating that small businesses have varied management styles and approaches according to the stage the small business is in. For example, being at the existence stage (creating and establishing), the owner has direct supervision management style; his major strategy approach would be to stay alive, thus, there would be no formal systems to follow. Figure : source http://www.tameer.org.pk/images/The_Five_Stages_Of_Small_Business_Growth.pdf [accessed on 17/11/2010] However, not all small businesses grow; some of them fail to survive due to the lack of environmental scanning; finance or planning. Moreover, Hakim (1989), in her survey of approximately 750,000 UK businesses, 55 per cent had no plans for growth, at a time when the economy was growing. The finding was clearly influenced by business size, with 60 per cent of businesses with fewer than 3 workers having no growth aspirations, compared with only 2 per cent of those with 25-49 employees. Hence, the smaller the operational size of the business the less likely it is to seek to increase its scale or growth. Skills Required to Create, Establish and Run a Small Business A skill is simply a knowledge which is demonstrated by action. It is an ability to perform in a certain way. The Five-Must Skills Requires when creating; establishing and running the Small Business Planning skills Personal skills and characteristics Sales and marketing skills Accounting and financial skills Administrative skills These are the basic skills necessary to enable the small business owner to start, develop, finance, and market his small business. Apart from all these skills mentioned, other important skills are needed to run a business mainly: leadership skills; human skills; conceptual skills and technical skills. Planning skills Creating a new business is the pre-start-up phase where planning skills are very important. While creating the business, an appropriate business plan is required which explain the business concept and model (Justin et al 2002). The business plan will require the owner or shareholder to have an organisation-wide approach skill as it consists of the business model, financial, marketing and operational management plan. The approaches towards the business plan in small and large businesses differ. According to (Bridge et al. 1998), the preparation of business plan may be unsuitable for small businesses due to the dynamic changes in the environment. Small business has a more tactical approach to planning as they concentrate on the survival and stability strategy at the creating and establishing stage and an emergent strategy at the running stage In addition, Paul D. Hannon and Andrew Atherton (1997) developed a model of planning in the journal of small firm success and show that there is a critical relationship between planning in small business and strategic awareness capability which lead to the small business success known as the successful orienteer. Nevertheless, this is not always the case for small business owner to be a successful orienteer due to the internal and external factors affecting them. However, in large businesses, they have a strategic (long term vision) approach as regard to their business plan. They emphasised the corporate level of strategy (Philip S, 2003) which aim for the stability and growth. The corporate strategy seek to grow the business by implementing long term marketing strategies (the Ansoff Matrix) and also to achieve higher profitability, sales revenue and to have better competitive advantages over its rivals. Figure : Ansoff Matrix (2007 When creating; establishing and running a small business time management skills are also essential. The small owner should be able to create a work life balance. Small business owner may spend too much time at work. Moreover, their main motivation is their income to satisfy their family needs, thus, they should make effective decisions to balance their business life with their personal life. Figure : The business/Personal overlap In contrast, large businesses have an effective time management skills, due to formal procedures of meeting deadlines and being compliance with legal proceedings. Personal skills In the early stages of business development, the personal characteristics and skills of the small business owner will influence the management style of the business. Thus, the individual attributes influence the skills of the owner which shapes the leadership outcomes. General cognitive ability Motivation Personality Individual attributes Problem solving skills Social judgement skills Knowledge Competencies Leadership outcomes Effective problem solving Performance Table : the three components of the skills model pg. 41 According to Lundberg (1985), the personal skills and characteristics such as problem-solver, determination, self-discipline, analytical skills, good judgement of characters and so on, motivate the small business owner to create and establish and also run his business successfully, and as Birley (1996) mentioned à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.The owner perceives the business as an extension of his or her personality, intricately bound with family needs and desires. However, many small businesses fail compare to large businesses because they run their business as an extension of their personality. For example, if the small business owner is introvert, quite assertive, make his own decision rather than consulting subordinates or explore the external environment, he/she is more prone to adopt the closed and indirect management style rather than open and direct management style (David A 1993) which may result in failure. The self-motivating skills and aspirations of small business owners are also different from those who operate large businesses. Miner (1997) concluded that small business owners are motivated by their performance, independence, status and family needs. Gray (2002); Hart and Oulton (1996), some are lifestyle owners of small businesses whose object is primarily to obtain a comfortable living for themselves, it may be a hobby that generate incomes or to pass on their business to family members. In contrast, a minority may wish to grow their business rapidly. However, owners or shareholders of large businesses seek to maximise the value of the company. The task management is to achieve this maximisation of shareholders value by seeking profit maximisation and continuous growth and expansion. In addition, the management style will be mostly influenced by the organisational culture, which consists of six elements according to Johnson and Scholes (1992). Figure : Johnson Cultural Web (1992) Networking skills including interpersonal skills are also important. Networks can be defined as: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ a firms set of relationships with other organisations (Perez and Sanchez 2002:261). In essence, what Birley (2002) suggests is that individuals use their networks to gain legitimation and resources for their established business. Without the benefit of such support, the implication is that many new established (start-up) businesses would be stillborn. The social network approach differ from the way small businesses use it compared to large ones in order to support the development of their business. Small businesses uses the support of its family, limited customers base and other owners of small businesses to develop the establish organisation whereas, large businesses use a pool of social network (stakeholders). Thus, Birley states the credibility is lower in small businesses, than in large businesses due to the lack of market power and sources of funds to satisfy the suppliers and customers. Figure : The credibility cycle (Sue Birley and David Norburn, 1976) Sales and Marketing skills The business should create awareness of his product or service and distinguish them from their competitors by effective marketing skills. The business then needs to be able to convert interest into cash! This is where sales, oral communication, negotiation skills and interpersonal skills come in. Thus, the small business owner should rely on their effective sales and marketing skills to maintain and acquire good customer relationship. For example, identify the sales opportunity, be confident to handle objection and negotiate to reach win-win situation (Fred E, 1987). In large business, lot of finances are put towards sales and marketing. In addition, specialist sales and marketing manager, with high competence, expertise and knowledge, are those who deal with different sales and marketing techniques to be implemented in order to have good customer relationship and expand their product/market portfolio. Besides, in large businesses, brand positioning plays a big role in their marketing strategy. Shocker et al. (1994) and Hatten and Schendel (1977) reveals that in large businesses, brand can be a positive factor influencing sales. It provides the customer with the awareness leading to confidence and ultimately loyalty. They also showed that small businesses such as hairdresser; pubs, corner shops etc., have no brand value, apart from some local loyalty. Thus, protecting a positive brand image is vital for large businesses. Accounting and Financial skills When creating, establishing and running a small business, the most important skill that the owner should possess is the financial skill. To implement the business idea, source of finance is required to start-up and run the establishment. Financial skills include: planning annual budget; cash flow forecast, effective management of the cash cycle; avoid overtrading and the profit and loss account should be analysed. In small businesses the owner has hands-on skills, thus, such financial skills are needed to survive and remain in existence. However, large businesses are in better advantage as they not only have specialist financial analysts to analyse their accounts and prepare their budgets, but the banks and building societies also help them. In addition, Ang (1991), conducted empirical evidence and stated that small businesses are funded primarily from the owners savings and retained profits and the use of external equity is rare. Small businesses pay higher interest rates on borrowed funds than large businesses, which have a wide choice of sources of finance. Thus, the small businesses faces lots of financial difficulties as mentioned in the figure below. Figure : The Financial Skills face by Small Business Owners by Jonathan Tucker and Jonathan Lean -2003 Administrative skills Administrative skills include a wide range of organisational and technical skills from planning, organising, scheduling and to staffing. Thus, a small business owner should possess administrative skills, such as good filing procedure for the billings, invoices and so. In contrast, large businesses normally have the finance to invest in latest technology in order to manage their administrative skills. Key Differences in Running Small businesses and Large Businesses: Skills; Approaches and Management style The management styles are distinctive ways of making decisions and relating to subordinates. Different management styles can be used dependent on the culture of the business, the nature of the task, the nature of the workforce and the personality and skills of the owners or leaders. As discussed in the essay, the small business owners skills are more or less the same as the entrepreneurial skills, they adopt an adaptive and organic management style whereas large businesses ownership skills are more predictive and mechanist which relate to their autocratic management style. Figure : Differences between the small business management skills and management style compared to large ones (Beaven and Jenning- 1995) However, stating that large businesses have a more autocratic management style due to its bureaucratic organisational structure, is too generalised, ignoring the fact that the management styles and the relative importance of the skills (technical; decision-making and interpersonal skills) varies within the level of management. Management level Primary Management Skills needed Primary Management Functions Performed Management or leadership styles Top Decision-Making and Interpersonal skills Planning and Organising Participative leadership style Middle Balance of Interpersonal; Technical; and Decision-Making skills Balance of all five functions (Planning; Organising; Controlling; staffing and Leading) Balance of autocratic; democratic and paternalistic as result to circumstances First-Line Technical and Interpersonal Skills leading and controlling Balance of democratic and autocratic as result to circumstances Table : Skill needed; Function performed and Management styles used at different management levels. Source: lassier (2002) In addition, the culture prevails in the organisation will shape the organisational structure. Nowadays, many large businesses, such as BQ are concentrating in developing a flat structure, with more flexibility. Besides, approaches and management styles changes according to circumstances and objectives. Skills can quickly become obsolete if owners or shareholders are not constantly updating them. Thus, training and development and knowledge management of the owners and employees are very crucial. In small businesses, owners management style will be influenced by their skills and characteristics, thus, stating that due to informal control and undifferentiated roles, the small businesses have an organic or flatter structure due to fewer tiers is not always the case. Some small businesses fail as some owners are autocratic as they want things to be done their way and are often the one who makes decisions without consulting the employees and analysing the external environment. The table below will provide evidences of the key differences between small and large businesses as regard to the running of the business which will influence the owners skills, approaches and management style. Aspect (Evidence) Small Business Large Business What difference does it make? Strategy (Man et al. 2002; Rangone 1999) Has to be flexible since it lacks the opportunity to reap scale economies. So, more likely to develop an emergent strategy The large business will seek to exploit its price advantages, and advantage obtained by heavy investment in people, fixed assets or research and development The development of new markets and particular new industries has often been pioneered by smaller businesses. Once, those industries have become established, average business size increases because economies of scale become important Political influence (Dannreuther 1999) The individual small business, acting alone, will have minimal impact on government. Large businesses are widely consulted by governments, even at the early stage when legislation is considered. Large businesses have considerable power and can influence the formulation of government policy. If legislation. However, large businesses argue that, whilst they comply fully with legislation, smaller businesses can avoid enforcement by avoiding the scrutiny of government. Wages and benefits for workers (Brown et al. 1990; Troske, 1999) Small businesses generally pay lower wages and provide fewer fringe benefits Larger businesses pay higher wages and provide more fringe benefits Large and small businesses hire different types of worker. The small business worker is more likely to be either old or young, attracted by a team ethnic and less likely to have formal qualifications. Human resources (Vickers et al. 2005; Forth et al. 2006) At their best, small businesses provide a happy environment in which to work. At, their worst, they can be unsafe, exploitative, working environments. Large businesses are more likely to attract prime age workers, with formal qualifications, and those seeking a career. Overall, job satisfaction appears to be higher in small than in large businesses. Large business workers are likely to receive a higher remuneration package but small business workers may derive greater satisfaction from flexibility and sense of teamwork. Training and Recruitment (Carroll et al. 1999; Storey 2005) Small businesses provide less training and recruit new staff through informal channels. Large businesses are much more likely to provide formal training and use formal channels to recruit new staff. Small businesses, because they emphasise the use of informal procedures, are viewed by some as backward. But this is to misunderstand the motivations and constraints of small business owners. What is less clear is whether small businesses provide more informal training than large ones. Competitive advantages (Jennings and Breaver 1997) Flexible, responsive to the customer. Able to undertake investment and provide a more comprehensive service. Large businesses can reap scale economies, so they are more likely to be able to compete on price. They are also able to supply a wider range of liked services, avoiding the need for customers to have to shop around. Table : The key differences between small and large businesses; Source: Storey and Greene (2010) Conclusion Thus, creating, establishing and running a small business does require some of the skills as operating large ones, but the approaches and management styles will be different to large and small businesses due to their differences in characteristics and the different factors affecting them internally and externally. Besides, the small business owners do have different goals, plan, skills and approaches. For example, a small business owner has undifferentiated roles, thus need to have a hand-on skills to promote diversity and flexibility. However, it was also mentioned that skills and management style varies upon the levels of management and also people are different individuals who use different management styles according to the circumstances and objectives. The key advantage of the small business is that while the external uncertainty they experienced are greater than large businesses, they experienced less internal uncertainties due to their close control over the business. In addition, small businesses see themselves as customer focused, placing emphasis on service. However, generalisation is untrue: that all small businesses have lack of market power and do not grow. For example, the crematorium, a small business was able to exert real market power over a competitor. We should not forget as well that skills; approaches and management style of small businesses would be different to large businesses because small businesses tend to be higher in the risk of failure. The main reasons are normally lack of contingency plans, poor risk assessment done and lack of leadership style. This is why small businesses concentrate on cash rather than profit (Birley, 1992).

The Concept Of Spirituality Sociology Essay

The Concept Of Spirituality Sociology Essay That Religion has both a positive and negative effect on human behaviour is widely accepted (Batson, Scoenrade and Ventis, 1993; Paloutzian and Park, 2005; Zinnbauer and Pargament, 2005). Psychology has an important role in understanding the basis of belief, experience and behaviour, (Emmons and Paloutzian, 2003), which suggests that how it is taught and how power is apportioned should be carefully considered particularly if, as suggested, religions are authoritative spiritual traditions. Despite clear importance and contradictory effect on human behaviour religion remained a fringe research area for the first seventy five years of the 21st Century and furthermore it was nonexistent in the research activity of Psychology between 1930 and 1960 (Emmons and Paloutzian, 2003; Gorsuch, 1988). A suggestion for the non evolution of the study of religion suggests that the emerging new science wanted to distance itself from its philosophical fathers and their occasional radical theories about religion, in all its forms were not necessarily compatible with the modernist scientific paradigm that was emerging (Gorsuch, 1988; Hood, Hill and Spika, 2009). In addition Emmons and Paloutzian, (2003) commented on their tendency to avoid taboo subjects. Despite the fact that religion was ignored by psychologists, societys changing attitude towards religion has been cited as having occurred concurrently with two historical events. Durkheim date claimed that both the French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution which also marked the rise of democracy and personal freedom, instigated the breaking down of the social classes which governed religion thus leading to the new society questioning of blind faith, (cited in Pals, 1996). The hippie era which emerged in the 1960s opened up new possibilities to a rebellious youth that initiated a societal turn to new age thoughts. Roberts (2004) suggested this to be a secularisation in the evolution of religion, since the pre-industrial age had been a period when religion was regulated by governing bodies, whilst the industrial era featured a religious comparison with other organisation and finally the post industrial era marked identification as spiritual rather than religious. The post indust rial age also marked the establishment of religion as a personalise system of meaning which suggests this was the beginning of a transformation of religiousness; however, the scientific establishment had not transformed its views of religion and spirituality. McPhillips (2002) considers this return to spirituality in the form of new age and religion as a reaction by society to secularisation and a societal search for re-enchantment which has been lost through individualism. However spirituality is still being viewed from the western perspective and does not explain the transformation of what is practiced. Furthermore it also assumes that eastern religions which are newly practiced in the west retain the same original meaning and are expressed and practiced the same as by the original practitioners. When the study of religion did re-merge in the 1960s with a new group of researchers their prime interest was prejudiced behaviour rather than religious behaviour it marked the rise of th e measurement paradigm which became the main method of study of religion. Problems do exist with the study of religions and spirituality. Gorsuch, (1988) suggested research in religion is at high risk of personal distortion. The lack of development demonstrates that the study of Religion has been socially managed, which indicates that politics are a factor, implying that the study remains in the realm of imperialism despite the general consciousness moving on as suggested by Durkheim (date cited in Pals, 1996). The effect of a personal agenda is again indicated through the resistance to the addition of spirituality within the title of APA division 36 psychology of religion (div 36). Its rejection is not based on empirical evidence but rather a claim that spirituality is fashionable (APA div 36, 2005) and has not amassed the same large body of evidence that its religious counterpart has done and therefore did not duly desire any credit. However, the western concept of religion marginalises spirituality, which includes much older eastern religions but again without empirical evidence (Dubuisson, 2003). The fashionable term new age, which is often the banner under which spirituality is defined has in response to this emerging negative view, moved away from the use of new age according to Lewis, (1992) who further suggests that no new label should be found. A move away from the new age concept however could have both positive and negative effects on the study since it will allow the integration into spirituality of suitable forms of belief and experience however without the label they are difficult to locate . Interestingly Humanist psychology Div 32 puts a far greater emphasis on spirituality and bifurcates it from the supernatural, which it claims is the domain of religion (Elkin, 2001). Another key factor which needs to be considered when studying religion is a participants susceptibility to answer questions according to societal expectations or norms that is not only in relation to practices but also regarding personal experiences, (Batson, Scoenrade and Ventis, 1993). The study of religion became mainstream within psychology by the 1980s which was marked by a plethora of books being published however spirituality didnt emerge in mainstream research or in the title of any published books until the year 2005. Furthermore, Lewis (1992) suggests the overall consciousness of the general public has altered and this change has escaped the attention of psychologists who find it easier to conduct inventories within defined groups rather than addressing the general alteration of spiritual commo nsense ideas. This general change in the consciousness has led to a crossover of the distinction of what is practiced such as following a traditional religion and practicing yoga. Without taking this change into account inventories are flawed. However what one person defines and argues to be rational could be another persons irrationality, (Gorsuch, 1988) which is particularly important when considering these scales since the subjectivity of rationality is particularly true due to the complex nature of religion and spirituality. Furthermore as cited in Gorsuch, (1988) Colins (1986) suggests that a neutral objectivity of religion is difficult particularly since neutrality for some religions is regarded as being anti-religious. A further issue is that experience is also subjective and ill defined, (Hood, Hill and Spika, 2009). For some individuals it is considered to be out there and tangible whilst for others experience includes what actually occurs within the mind, (Reber and Reber, 2001). Gadamer defines being experienced as radically undogmatic The man knows that all foresight is limited and all plans uncertain. In him is realised the true value of experience. Further experience is defined as, openness to new experience and symbolic of a search for new knowledge lack of expectation of having attained ultimate knowledge. (Gadamer, Weinsheimer and Marshall, 1989 p351) In the past twenty five years the study of Religion has flourished (Emmons and Paloutzian, 2003) and is often added as a defining variable in much empirical research, (Gorsuch, 1988). This is true particularly in relations to mental and physical wellbeing as Emmons and Paloutzian, (2003) suggest the applied areas of clinical, counselling and health have taken the lead in the study of links with religion which has instigated a move forward in the understanding of the importance of religious and spiritual behaviour in relation to physical and mental health. However the study of religion in relation to social psychology is relatively new (Emmons and Paloutzian, 2003) since little is known about why or how people are religious or spiritual or about the criteria by which their choices are made and as a result the understanding of experience has not improved per se. The experimental approach assumes that social situations are always objective and concepts such as Religion, and religiousness are out-there waiting to be measured with religion as the umbrella term. Spirituality, which is considered more as an individual quest, is marginalised and considered to be associated in some unknown way to religion but it is far too subjective to be studied scientifically. Critical social psychologists however, suggest social constructs are always subjective even when a person is mindlessly acting according to stereotypical societal norms and heuristics, furthermore it is their claim that social norms have been purposefully created and are evolving throughout history (Stainton-Rodgers, 2003). Formalised religion requires group cohesion and cannot exist without society (Pals, 1996), and it was Freud (1927) who suggested that the individual is the enemy of society since society flourishes when individuals suppress their personal wishes which further indicates why spirituality is marginalised within traditional religions. The individual pursuit of religion is further criticised by the suggestion that the quest for spirituality outside the framework of religion is motivated by narcissism, (Hood, Hill and Spika, 2009) however, the humanist approach considers the innate core of religion to be the spiritual experience which is dressed up in the language and symbols of a culture or belief system (Elkins, 2001). Experimental researchers further claims that personality, attitudes and identities are stable and discourse is a true reflection of them. Even though a database search reveals more than 1000 papers relating to religion, it is rarely the focal point of the studies and often only one item measurement is used, (Gorsuch, 1988) which doesnt take religion seriously and rarely features in a review of the literature thereby suggesting even more un-quantifed research is available. Using ,the method of questionnaires the measurement paradigm created 125 inventories, (Hill and Hood, 1999) to define and classify religious aspects and activities with a view to understanding religion and spirituality more fully, however much confusion still remains and the number of different inventories furthers this confusion. Rather than consolidating existing research, researchers have devised new inventories instead of adapting old ones which suggests that each paper is based on a different definition of religion, (Emmons and Paloutzian, 2003) therefore due to a lack of consensus there is an excessive amount of data available but virtually no theories have been formulated. Hill, (2005) suggests that no new scales should be created until greater clarity is understood. This range of scales has increased an understanding of conventional western religious behaviour, however an understanding of spirituality and experience can only have decreased since it is more subjective in natur e and when taking into account it more ancient origins. Zinnbauer and Pargament, (2005) observe that spirituality encompasses not only religiousness but also many other concepts of spirituality both formal and informal. What can be established from this lack of consensus is that an ultimate consensus is necessary or at least as Emmons and Paloutzian, (2003) suggests a minimum consensus however parameters maybe easier to establish. Further criticism that inventories have received is due to their narrow understanding of what religions experience entails, that they do not recognise unconventional practise which have been categorised as new age despite many such as Buddhism and Hinduism including yoga having much more ancient origins, not taking into account cultural differences or supernatural experiences which questionnaires cannot adequately measure. Belzen and Hood, (2006) have suggested a move away from the measurement paradigm. A new framework has been proposed the multilevel inte rdisciplinary paradigm which incorporates all levels of research from all domains, and promotes the acceptance of all data and for non reductive assumptions to be made, (Emmons and Paloutzian, 2003). The theory behind this research stems from critical social psychology which considers concepts such as Religion, Gender and Sexuality as socially situated, which Faucault, (1971) suggested has been constructed by society through the use of regulations and technologies of the self which are used to self regulate. Durkheim (cited in Pals, 1996) in relation to society, called it mechanical Solidarity. This discursive approach was used by Edley and Whetherell, (1997) who explored the socially situated construction of masculinity. Through analysis a repertoire emerged of the new man however a reference point remained of traditional values also in the discourse suggesting them to be the master and slave while constructing their identity. James (cited in Stainton-Rodgers, 2003) suggested the self to be made up of the I self as knower and the Me self as known however another construct of the self, the inter-subjective self (Stainton-Rodgers, 2003) doesnt divide the self quite as simply as Ja mes, but incorporates what Mead (1927) called the reflective self. It considers the self to be subject to inter-subjectivity, made from the following elements; reflectivity (reflective on their own behaviours), connectedness (interrelated to others and society), intentionality (purposeful and strategic), being-in-the-world (constantly influenced socially and contextually) or as James suggested a dynamic flow of consciousness that is constantly being changed moment by moment. This dynamic self was explored in the transcripts of Diana Princess of Wales interview by Abel and Stokoe, (2001) who found she constructed an inner true self and outer royal self which were reconciled as an ambassador for the people however she constructed two selves in very different ways suggesting that the experimental inventory method of questionnaires cannot fully capture the nature of identity. Not only has the identity of self been deconstructed by critical psychologists but also the concepts used for membership categorisation such as religion, sexuality and gender, masculinity and feminism. Many suggest that the study of Religion and Spirituality is incompatible with the scientific method (Bateson, Schonrade and Ventis, 1993) however both incorporate the study of identity which critical psychologists also suggest is incompatible with the experimental method (Stainton-Rodgers, 2003) a first step however is to employ that which has been lacking to date, namely a universal unde rstanding of both religion and spirituality by either definition or set parameters. A discursive discussion of the definition and distinctions between religion and spirituality originated when, Starbuck (1899), defined spirituality as an instinct, whereas James (1902) considered religion in relation to pragmatics and defined religion and spirituality as institutional and personal religion respectively. Maslow (1976) the Humanist introduced similar descriptions, those being organised religion and personal spirituality however his approach suggested an innate human need rather than free will of behaviour. Maslow further considered spirituality to be naturalistic rather than super natural which is in contrast to the psychology of religion that regards spirituality as being focused on the un-measurable supernatural. A major feature of traditional religion is the following of teachings and a moral code however different forms of spirituality also have an intrinsic learning system (Lewis, 1992). Hall, (1904) considered religion more as a moral code and the facilitation of education of the young. Cognitive developmental research has suggested that children in keeping with Piagets stage theory have a concrete understanding of religion but not until the teenage years and more importantly, if ever, do humans develop an abstract symbolic understanding of religion, (Gorsuch, 1988) though there is very little research. In 1912 Leuba found 48 different definitions of religion (cited in Batson, Schoenrade and Ventis, 1993) with the diversity of religion and spirituality therefore it is not surprising that no single definition is in existence. Zinnbauer and Pargament, (2005) reviewed several definitions and call the situation a flux over meaning. In debate over the construction of spirituality Pargaments defines spirituality as Sacred (1999a 1999b) with Emmons and Crumpler, (1999) differentiating sacralisation as both an internal and external sanctification the internal being the transformation of persons to become holy and pure and external sanctification as that of places, people and objects with the emphasis still being placed on god and religion. McPhillips, (2002) considers the sacred to have been created due to a need for enchantment however it is still based on western practices. Furthermore, this taps into the gender debate since religion predominates with sacred masculinity of God, Jesus, Mohamed, Buddha, for example whereas spirituality incorporates that of a feminine energy, sacred goddess, or a divine mother. Lee (2000) who considered spirituality in relation to feminism cited Ferguson, (1995) who claimed women are alienated by a masculine dominated religion which however suggests that all religions and spirituali ty are engendered. However as Lee (2000) suggests when spirituality is considered within the feminine domain there is a susceptibility of merely reiterating the gender division rather than creating a rebalance. Spirituality however generally refers to both genders, Hinduism has both gods and goddesses and Buddhism refers to the un-gendered Buddha within. Stifoss-Hanssen, (1999) considered focusing spirituality on sacred to be more subjective than necessary and related more to an individuals personal definition of their religion rather than a general explanation implying that what is deemed sacred to one person, is not necessarily sacred to another. Stifoss-Hansen, (1999) claimed that Pargament, (1999) uses general terms intentionally to eliminate forms of spirituality which entirely exclude religion. Having disregarded the concept of sacred Stifoss-Hanssen (1999) argued spirituality as existential and related to meaning, placing spirituality as the more global term. Zinnbauer in, Zi nnbauer and Pargament, (2005) agreed with the global difference however defined and differentiated the search for the sacred by religion being within a traditional framework. However Pargament in the same paper remained with religion but considers spirituality as the search for the sacred and religion as a search for the significance in ways to sacred. Batson, Schoenrade and Ventis, (1993) proposed different definitions for function and substance. This split in the definition of function and substance implies that by defining and distinguishing between religion and spirituality an ideological dilemma exists between its use and content. Further examples of possible ideological dilemmas appear in Zinnbauer and Pargament, (2005) which they refer to as the rise of opposite and polarisation. The rise of spirituality (Hill et al, 2000; Zinnbauer and Pargament, 2005) religion is being described as substantive, static, institutional, objective, belief-based and bad and opposed to spirituality which is conceived as functional, dynamic, personal, subjective, experience-based and good. However this viewpoint maintains the imperialist, westernised concept of religion and spirituality as spirituality didnt necessarily rise, rather the scientific study of religion finally recognised spiritualities prior construction. Dubussion (2003) claims reli gion is a western invented concept, which influences the way religion is defined by constructing western religions as true and thus marginalising eastern religions which do not conform to the western ideal. Wulff (1997) suggested that what had occurred was a change of reference to religion from a verb to a noun. Religion has been defined by Reber and Reber, (2001) an institutionalised system of belief or traditional pattern of ritual and ceremony and is considered to have been devised due to the innate need to understand the human condition. This definition draws on the suggestion that religion is a belief based doctrine and implies any doctrine not only traditional western religious but any form of doctrine should be considered a religion, so a distinction between western Religion and Eastern spirituality is not suitable since many forms of spirituality also contain doctrines. Reber and Rebers, (2001) definition further conceives religion as a function of a meaning system which pla ces religion as a function of essentialism (Paloutzian and Park, 2005). Stifoss-Hanssen, (1999), however considers spirituality a function of a meaning system. Robert (2004) claimed the emerging American return to religion and the emergence of the new age is based on a new search for personal meaning rather than a general, implied and instructed societal meaning system which suggests that not all cultures are at the same evolutionary point with regard to understanding religion and spirituality. James (1902) highlighted the importance of context to meaning and suggested that experience rather than institution should be studied since institutions are a product of experience whereby suggesting a spiritual focus on substance rather than function. Furthermore Zinnbauer and Pargament, (2005) revised the possible distinction to religion as being reduced to its static function and spirituality as dynamic. However a search for meaning (function) does not indicate that the use of religion giv es meaning (substance) or what is eventually accomplished by experience is meaning. It may simply be that meaning is the idea that draws some participants in (function) and their experience (Substance) is something else or vice versa depending on the individual. Furthermore there is no evidence that the sole function of religion or spirituality is for the purpose of meaning or that as the Humanists assume, there is a need for meaning. Following on from the meaning system, Lewis (1992) suggests spirituality as a social and individual transformation however the transformation of both society and the individual may not solely have a spiritual basis since one may be affected by the other. Furthermore no one single model of transcendent reality can be chosen to define spirituality, (Reich, 2000) although transcendent reality can be defined as one concept which explains the experience of spirituality. In the UK the research on eastern spirituality is conducted by (BPS subsection) transpersonal psychology which draws on the humanistic aspects of the debate. Both transformation and transcendence focuses on the individual, which is another factor that often emerges in debate which could be considered as just one aspect of spirituality. Transpersonal psychology does however also incorporate the self help and mind, body and spirit concept which incorporates a how to concept which can still be considered a doctrine that would draw aspects of it closer to religion as opposed to spirituality. Furthermore religious experience could be suggested to also incorporate personal transformation (Lewis, 1992) this adds to the argument that both religion and spirituality have a learning focus. Other concepts emerge however within the debate connectedness (Emmons et al, 2003; Hill and Pargament, 2005; Paloutzian and Park, 2005; Pargament, 1999a; Reich, 2000; Stifoss-Hanssen,1999) is a major concept used to construct spirituality (Keisling et al, 2006; Knight, 2002; Lee, 2000; 2007; Lee and Marshall, 2002; Person, 2002) although what is connected is not so clear cut. Reich, (2000) suggested the connection to be to others, nature and a higher being whereas Lee (2000) found that participants in feminist spirituality constructed connectedness as to the feminine goddess however by connecting to the feminine it doesnt discriminate the possibility of other connectedness or claim that this form of spirituality was for everybody. There is also some use of oneness which is constructed as collective of many different forms. Lee and Marshall (2002) further propose links between spiritual oneness and popular cultures such as the rave scene of the 80s and DIY culture whereby lack of need for personal gain is constructed as spiritual enough however many other popular activities can be linked such as the sporting zone (Douillard, 2001) gifts such as music, writing and art which are often considered to occur with a connection to something else are often called a muse. The concept of religious instinct, that Paloutzian and Park, (2005) constructed as a compulsion, Lee and Marshall, (2002) suggest is the spiritual construction of instinct as a different kind of knowing which uses the vehicular body not just the mind and further as a way of connecting the body and mind and an initiation of transcendence and accessing embodied knowledge and connection to a universal energy (Lee and Marshall, 2002). Hinduism is a particularly good example of this construction together with its incorporation of yoga, as well as meditation within spirituality. Elkin, (2001) also claimed one of the characteristics of spirituality is a mysterious energy, Reich, (2000) called it a higher being and points out that in religion the higher being is god. Dubussion (2003) suggested everything religious to be defined as cosmographic formations which suggests connections through cosmic alignment. Traditional and non-traditional Religions are much better concepts in order to distinguish traditional western religion from spiritual religion such as, new age and eastern religions and spirituality could be defined as experience whether religious, non religious or spiritual. Emerging factors of religion and spirituality rather than a definition are as follows; finding or receiving meaning, religious institution and spiritual self, belief system, doctrine, teaching system and moral code, experience is more closely aligned with being spiritual, and behaviours being distinguished as religious or spiritual. Emerging interpretative repertoires specific to spirituality are as follows; transcendence, transformation, connectedness, instinct, embodied knowledge, higher energy or being rather than specifically a god. There is a dearth of research into spirituality, which is holding back its acceptance as being equal to Religion in research. The discursive debate of interpretative repertoires does not however explain their usage and construction. Engler, (2005) claimed constructionist commentary in the form of discursive discussion of spirituality is weak but plentiful but adds little to the understanding and constructionist research in the form of discursive analysis is strong but in short supply. What is required is strong constructionist work, which considers how spirituality is constructed, however to ignore Religion when considering spirituality is not beneficial. A discursive analysis of the experiences of spirituality is required considering how people construct their spiritual identity and the identity of spirituality. This study has considered the constructive qualities of religion and spirituality, which have emerged from the literature and has found key themes of gender, power and being or doing. Religion is strongly influenced by following a doctrine and by doing religion putting faith in a powerful higher being whereas spirituality is described more by being spiritual and connected and the power coming from within however contradictions in research into mind body and spirit literature also suggests a doing rather than being activity which perhaps is what is confusing the meaning of what spirituality entails. This research will explore what is the nature of spirituality and factors affecting it through discursive analysis of semi-structured interviews with those practicing a particular form of non-institutionalised, non-organised earth based spiritual activities. Research questions/aims: Exploring the meaning of spirituality, and the possible relation to gender and power and how participants construct their identity as a spiritual being. Contrasting peoples experiences of spirituality with psychological research into religious experience and body, mind and spirit. Bring a new perspective to the study of spiritual experience and exploring possible difference between being and doing spirituality.

The Significance of Family and Kinship Essay example -- essays papers

The Significance of Family and Kinship One of the most important and essential things that everyone must have in order to live a great and joyful life is family. One must follow values to be successful in life, and one must also support their family to keep that success advancing toward the future. In David W. McCurdy’s article, â€Å"Family and Kinship in Village India,† it discusses the significance of how a successful family is formed by tradition, preparation, and patience. The article describes how kinship has the power to arrange marriages successfully, make families unite and assist each other, and teach and help one another agriculturally or economically. According to McCurdy, the main ways that kinship organizes â€Å"Bhil† society in Ratakote, India are the terms used to refer to them, the responsibilities that they have toward one another, and the importance of marrying them off properly. Marriage plays a big role in life for the Bhil’s of Ratakote. The Bhil’s follow their tradition of arranging marriages. They feel that by arranging marriages, both of the families of the bride and groom will benefit in many ways. To them, marriage constructs alliances between the families, lineage, and clans. It also gives social strength and security to the families, and their personal reputations depend on the quality and number of their allied kin. The Bhil parents of the bride and groom in question, must first find out if the other family’s worthy of becoming a part of the sam...

Chlamydia :: essays research papers

Chlamydia Chlamydia is the most common sexually transmitted infection in the United States. It strikes about 4 million people a year in the U.S.. 100,000 women become infertile each year from a pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), which plugs up or scars the filopian tubes, so the egg can’t reach the uterus. 45% of sexually active teenagers are exposed to the disease at least once. Clamydia is caused by a bacterium, named chlamydia trachomatis. The pathogen enters the body through sexual activity, or when some comes in contact with the infected persons bodily fluids, such as blood, semen, or vaginal fluid. Chlamydia is often unnoticed because the symptoms are often inconspicuous or not present at all. When symptoms do arise, in men, it is usually a clear or white discharge from the penis or a swelling of the testicles, which can lead to infertility if left untreated. 75% of women with the disease show no symptoms. In those that do, it is usually a yellow discharge from the urethra, painful urination, or painful sex. Â ½ of all cases of pelvic inflammatory disease, which leads to an ectopic pregnancy in pregnant women, is caused by chlamydia. Ectopic pregnancy is the leading cause of death of pregnant teens in the inner city and poor neighborhoods. Chlamydia also causes conjunctitis. This is a swelling of the eyes which can lead to blindness. The bacteria also can lead to pneumonia. Although it is the most easily treated STI, most people in danger won’t get checked until complications show, and that is why the disease is spread so much. It takes about three weeks for most people to see symptoms. In that time, they have sexual contact with others and not know they are spreading it. This process goes on and on and some day it could turn into an epidemic. This is why it is called the "silent epidemic". Chlamydia s simple to cure. Physicians prescribe a one day course of an antibiotic, azithromycin, and it’s gone.

Importance of Dean Moriarty in Jack Kerouac’s On The Road Essay

Importance of Dean Moriarty in Jack Kerouac’s On The Road It is Dean Moriarty, in Jack Kerouac’s On The Road, who represents the eternal flame of youth that was adopted by the rebellious youth culture of the Beat Generation. He is free from responsibility, â€Å"simply a youth tremendously excited with life†¦want[ing] so much to live and to get involved with people who would otherwise pay no attention to him† (Kerouac 4). Just as the Greek of the Olympics, â€Å"with [the] torch†¦[that] ignites the pagan dream of immortality† (Rodriguez 1), Dean embodies the almost immortal flame of youth, the eternal â€Å"sideburned hero of the snowy West† (Kerouac 2). As â€Å"He was the BEAT—the root, the soul of Beatific† (Kerouac 195), Dean embodied and still embodies the spirit of the immortal Beat Generation. Post-World War Two, the fifties saw the arrival of â€Å"juvenile delinquents, motorcycles, and leather jackets†¦[and the hipsters, who] adopted an ethic at odds with most Americans, and his values and view of the world soon became the Beats’† (Foster 8). The character of Dean Moriarty is literally and figuratively the firebrand of the invincible youth culture known as the Beat Generation, as he was one of â€Å"a youth tremendously excited with life†¦the holy con-man with the shining mind† (Kerouac 5). The passionate madness of life and rebellious con-man life-styles evinced in the character of Dean Moriarty are symbolic of the generation. Tim Hunt proposes that Sal Paradise, the protagonist or perhaps the conventional man, chooses â€Å"his [Dean’s] romanticized version of Denver slum life†¦[this] represents the New World at its most anarchistic and individualistic apex† (Hunt 39). Because Dean Moriarty holds this carefree and enthusiastic nature of the unconq... ... be immortal himself, his actions and Beat are enduring, that is, living within On the Road eternally. As James Dean became a symbol and inspiration for the Rebel, Dean Moriarty became the literary representation of the rebellious Beat Generation, holding onto that eternal flame—the passionate recklessness, the easygoing charisma that can ultimately found in youth. Works Cited Campbell, James. â€Å"The place of dead roads.† This is the Beat Generation. Los Angeles: U of California Press, 1999. Foster, Edward Halsey. â€Å"Kerouac.† Understanding the Beats. Columbia: U of South Carolina, 1992. Holstad, Scott C. â€Å"Kerouac: A look.† Kerouac’s On The Road and the American Quest. 1999. 04 Jan 2002. Hunt, Tim. â€Å"An American Education.† Kerouac’s Crooked Road. Los Angeles: U of California Press, 1996. Kerouac, Jack. On the Road. New York: Penguin Books, 1976.

A Prime Example of Authoritative Parenting Essay

Parental styles have a well-documented influence on children, and play a strong role in a child’s development. Authoritative parenting has been proven to potentially reduce a child’s risk of associating with antisocial peers, and deter engagement in delinquent behavior. Authoritative parenting has also been shown to raise adults that have healthy emotional adjustment and prosocial behavior. My parents used an authoritative parenting style that created a stable, engaging, warm and nurturing childhood for me. I plan on being an authoritative parent. It worked well in my family, and because research both contemporary and historically states that authoritative parenting is the preferable style. My family is an American nuclear family composed of a father, mother and two siblings. My father Jim is a very successful architect and entrepreneur and my mother Michele is the CFO of their businesses, which allowed her to be a stay at home mother for me and my older brother Kristopher. My parents are a solid example of the authoritative parenting style; their parenting style created a stable, engaging, warm and nurturing childhood for me. I believe the productive and effective business relationship they developed as business partners directly influenced how well they parented, and that their experience in joint decision making especially benefited their parenting, and ultimately me as well. Throughout my childhood and adolescence they were a solid authoritative parenting team, which helped them create a home with a lot of structure. Minuchin, as quoted by Omer, Steinmetz, Carthy and Schlippe (2013), says â€Å"Structure plays a crucial role in promoting a stable and secure frame for family life (Minuchin, 1974).† I strongly feel that the structure positively affected my development by minimizing conflict and confusion. I believe my parent’s personalities also greatly influenced why and how they are authoritative parents. My mother is intelligent, articulate, willful, persistent, ethical, logical, and astonishingly organized. My mother has a dominate personality, and is a woman whose actions are generally the result of reason not her emotions, which is rare for women. However, she is an incredibly warm and nurturing mother who has always been emotionally available for me. I feel these positive traits influenced why I generally listened to her advice and direction, as she was a reliable and available mother. I have always immensely respected and loved

Database Design P1, M1 & D1 Essay

Database is a place to store lots of data, imagine it as a giant virtual filling cabinet that can be organized in many ways. There’s software called (DBMS) which stands for database management system which allows the user to manage data in database such as; create, delete or update. Entities Entities are objects with significant mass and purpose, in database entities are tables. Every table contains many fields/attributes. The user must create a table before inputting any data. When creating a table you need to define a few things, data type, fields name & a description. Fields Name This is a column heading, this will display the title for the column etc first name, last name, address. Data Type This is the content of the data & the data type decides what content can be inputted & the file size. Description This is used to explain the content & shows a list of ‘limitations’ the user can change to get a more accurate reading etc. input mask. Attributes A characteristic, for example; a field has many attributes such as data like numbers or letters. Attributes can be used as a synonym for a â€Å"field†. In DOS systems, each files has an attribute, each file has many properties that shows if the file is â€Å"read only†, visible or encrypted. Queries A query is use for searching some specific record. It allow user to set conditions and then search the record which match the conditions. User also is able to make the search mix up with other table and sort the order of the result. Reports A Report is a summary of record. Everything you plain to print should put inside. Its purpose is for user to view information quickly and easily so display the result simply and efficiently is the main point. Forms Form is used for collect and edits information and transfers them to table. It is similar to application forms that allow user to fill in or delete their data easily and it also able to let user design own user interface. User can insert as much control as they like to build the user interface beautifully. Relationships Relationship types Database relationships are very similar in that they’re associations between tables. There are three types of relationships: One-to-one: both tables of the relationship have one field that matches up, for example; a married couple that both have a child that has no relation to the other partner. This rarely ever happens in a business organization One-to-many: one-to-many is where one table has none/one or many relations with the other table’s fields but the other table has only none/one field. For example, you have only one mother, but your mother may have several children. Many-to-many: Both tables have one/many relations to each other’s fields. Usually in this instance there are usually 3 tables. Benefits The benefits of having databases online are that it’s easier & quicker to do. The amount of paper saved & room is very beneficial. Its quicker & easier for the user to find important data in the database. The user can make forms to find & read information easier. The user can set rules to make the data input more accurate & legit. You can save the information on multiple storage units (hard drives) So if the information has been tampered with, there’s always a spare copy somewhere safe. Task 2 Primary key The primary key of a relational table uniquely identifies each attribute in the table. Primary keys could be a unique attribute such as â€Å"social security number† for a person or student etc. Primary keys may consist of a single attribute or multiple attributes in combination. Primary keys connect tables together in relationships Referential integrity There is a feature with databases called relational database management systems (RDBMS’s) that prevents users or applications from entering inconsistent data. Most RDBMS’s have referential integrity rules that you can apply when you create a relationship between two entities. For example, suppose Table B has a foreign key that points to a field in Table A. Referential integrity would prevent you from adding a record to Table B that cannot be linked to Table A. In addition, if I deleted a attribute in table A, if it is linked to table B, the data that is connecting both attributes will be deleted. This is called cascading delete. Finally, the referential integrity rules could specify that whenever you modify the value of a linked field in Table A, all records in Table B that are linked to it will also be modified accordingly. This is called cascading update. D1: Analyse Potential Errors in the Design & Construction of a Database and explain how these can be avoided There are many common errors that could occur while using database, it’s important to understand how these common error happen & what causes them. Deletion of records & fields Deleting important records & fields happen quite commonly, it’s caused by the user or by accident. If this does happen its always safe to know there is a copy of the data saved somewhere else in case this happens. It’s good to have a refresh back up time for 1 hour so every hour, the data renews itself. Human error leads to corruption or loss of fields so to ensure this doesn’t happen it would be best to set administrative rights to the right users so only the right people can edit or delete fields, if the wrong people try to use the database, an error or password will be shown. Making more than 1 copy of the data is wise just in case something happens to the first copy. Incorrect data types To decrease the chances of getting incorrect data types in database, its best to put input masks on the fields. This stops incorrect data being imputed on data forms like sign-up sheets. It’s also wise to have multiple choice questions & drop down menus; this makes it more accurate to get correct data. Using drop down menus makes it easier & quicker for the user to get a positive & effective data results. By using the drop down menus & multiple choice questions, it ensures correct spelling & grammar of important information. Validation To ensure the data is imputed clean & correct you need to use validation rules. This is done by setting rules in the design view where the user can set what data can be imputed & what is invalid. An effective tool is the â€Å"limit checker† where the user can set a limit to the amount of characters that can be imputed into the database. Range checks are effective to ensure etc. birthdays, it sets the month from 1-12 & has a set range to when the  person was born etc. 1950-2014 (we are currently on 2014 so I don’t need to extend the range). Grammar checks are there to make sure the data isn’t misspelt, it also makes personal information & letters easier to produce. There’s a rule that can be set up on database that checks the inputted data for any incorrect information, if it finds something wrong, an error message will pop up & notify the user. Null Values Null values is similar to validation in where the user needs to input data & there are a set of rules to ensure the user inputs the correct/legitimate data however null values are shown when no data has been inputted into a specific textbox. An error message will pop up if no data is put into a specific field, this rule is usually put on by the user as when starting database, you get a lot of blank fields. This rule is useful for fields that need data in them such as â€Å"personal details†, â€Å"bank details† etc. If the user doesn’t type in anything into the textbox & clicks â€Å"accept† or â€Å"enter† an error message will pop up notifying the user about the null values. The boxes with errors are marked differently to the textboxes without errors, this is to clearly identify where the error is & makes its easier & quicker for the user to resolve.